Alternatives To The Instrument Landing Systems Engineering Essay

Alternatives To The Instrument Landing Systems Engineering Essay Pilots have been faced with horrors of not being able to safely carry out the whole flight envelope activities during unfavourable weather conditions. The solution was the idea of somehow aiding pilots with instruments that would help get the job done. The Instrument Landing System (ILS), being the first, did break the ice but its faults and restrictions paved way for alternatives like the MPL, JPAL, IGS and TLS amongst others. It cannot be overlooked though that the ILS is still the most common of all approaches and pilots are tested numerous times on the workings of the ILS during their flight career. The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is an instrument presented, pilot interpreted, precision approach aid. The system provides the pilot with instrument indications which, when utilised in conjunction with the normal flight instruments, enables the aircraft to be manoeuvred along a precise, predetermined, final approach path. [1] Tests of the ILS began in 1929 and the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) authorised installation of the system in 1941 at six locations. The first landing of a scheduled U.S. passenger airliner using ILS was on January 26, 1938, as a Pennsylvania Central Airlines Boeing 247-D flew from Washington D.C. to Pittsburgh and landed in a snowstorm using only the Instrument Landing System.[2] The first fully automatic landing using ILS occurred at Bedford Airport UK in March 1964. [3] 1.1 Overview on the Instrument Landing System (ILS) The ILS uses two primary signals: a localizer for lateral guidance (VHF) operating between frequencies 108.10MHz and 111.95MHz; and a glide slope for vertical guidance (UHF) operating between 329.30MHz to 335.00MHz. The localizer provides course guidance throughout the descent path to the runway threshold from a distance of 18 NM from the antenna between an altitude of 1,000 feet about the highest terrain along the course line and 4,500 feet about the elevation of the antenna site. [4] On the other hand, the glide consists of two overlapping beam modulated at 150Hz and 90Hz. The centre line of the glideslope signal is arranged to define a glide slope of approximately 3Â ° above ground level with the beam being 0.7Â ° below the glideslope centreline and 0.7Â ° above the glideslope centreline i.e. 1.4Â ° in total. The transmitter is located 750 to 1,250 ft. down the runway from the threshold, offset 400 to 600 ft. from the runway centreline [5]. 1.2 Limitations facing the ILS The complexity of the ILS localizer and glide-slope system gives rise to its high installation cost. Also, there are topographic limitations with the ILS because of the complex siting requirements due to the sensitivity of both the localizer and glide slope systems. The localizers full functionality is limited due to effects from obstructions in the signal broadcast areas like hangers and large buildings and the glide-slope conversely is affected by the terrain in front of the glide-slope antenna. If terrain is sloping or uneven, reflections can create an uneven glide-path causing unwanted needle deflections. Additionally, the ILS only supports straight-in approaches since its signals are pointed in one direction by the positioning of the antennae arrays. Furthermore, the ILS suffers from frequency congestion because of a finite number of available frequencies (only 40 channels in all)[6], and has frequency modulation interference problems in some areas.[7] Also, the fact that it is not easily deployable makes it fall out of favour with the military. These main facts resulted into the development of the Microwave Landing System (MLS) with one intention only, to replace the ILS. 2. The Microwave Landing System (MLS) 2.1 History of the MLS The Microwave Landing System was designed to replace or supplement the ILS. Tests of the MLS began in 1972 in Australia. Most of this work was jointly done by the then Federal Department of Civil Aviation (DCA), and the Radio Physics Division of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). The project was called Interscan which was one of the many Microwave Landing System under consideration internationally. Interscan was chosen by the FAA in 1975 and ICAO in 1978 as the format to be adopted. [8] The MLS was standardised in 1988 and approved for use in international civil aviation. [9] 2.2 Overview and advantages of the MLS over the ILS MLS employs 5GHz transmitters at the landing place which use passive electronically scanned arrays to send scanning beams towards approaching aircraft. An aircraft that enters the scanned volume uses a special receiver that calculates its position by measuring the arrival times of the beams. The MLS operates in the microwave spectrum of 5.0-5.25 GHz/15.4-15.7 GHz. It provides azimuth, elevation and distance measurement to aircraft having the necessary components installed. It has various advantages over the ILS as it is more accurate and preferable in providing approach guidance to aircrafts. It is capable of providing fan coverage range of +/- 40 degrees either side of the antennae and a horizontal distance of about 20NM from the runway touchdown point for azimuth approaches and +/- 20degrees fan coverage area from a horizontal distance of 5NM for back azimuth for a missed approach situation. The ILS on the other hand can only accurately provide course guidance of +/- 10 degrees eit her side of the antennae from a horizontal distance of 18NM for forward azimuth approach and a further +/- 25 degrees fan coverage area (+/- 35degrees in total for azimuth approaches) from a horizontal distance of 10NM for back azimuth on a missed approach. Any area beneath the +/- 35 degrees coverage area, signal may provide incorrect or undesirable readings by the instruments. [10] This statement is graphically represented in figure 1. Figure 1. The MLS coverage area. Also, the DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) on the ILS provides a range accuracy of +/- 1,200ft. as compared with greatly improved version on the MLS called the DME/P (for Precision) which provides a range accuracy of +/- 100feet making it possible for the MLS to guide the extremely accurate CATIII approaches which was previously normally carried out with expensive ground based high precision radar equipment with the ILS. Furthermore, with the MLS having 200 channels for communication/broadcast operating between 5031 and 5090.6 MHz (far from FM broadcast frequencies) gives it further advantage through getting rid of jamming and interference problems faced with the ILS because its operational channel frequencies are fairly close to FM broadcast frequencies. In addition, the MLS antennae are small because it transmits at higher frequencies, cheaper and easy to construct and maintain as it does not employ a Localizer and glideslope transmitter. It can also be placed anywhere as compared to the ILS system that has to be placed at the end of the runway and along the approach path. Again, it has the advantage of providing precision guidance to V/STOL (Shot Take-off and Landing) aircrafts and helicopters in small areas e.g. roof-top helicopters which is impossible with the ILS. In addition, it cannot only accommodate straight-in or segmented approaches but also curved approaches as the transmitter does not have to be in direct alignment with the receiver before landing can be possible and this is so because the MLS transmitter signal covers a very large fan-shaped coverage area. Finally, because of the higher frequency the MLS operate, precisely in a ratio of 50:1 as compared with the ILS, it therefore requires a smaller antenna. A 1o beam-width antenna for a MLS requires 12ft (3.6m) antenna while a typical ILS system would require a 600ft (180m) antennae size for the same 1o beam-width losing out again to the MLS to size advantage. [11]. The MLS expectation to replace the ILS was actually the reverse as a lot of airliners were reluctant to converting to MLS because it required them installing and or changing some equipment on board the aircraft and on the ground. Also, at almost about the same time came the invention of the GPS. The GPS required no installations in airports. It never employed placing any antennae along the runway like the ILS and MLS. This eliminates the siting requirements imposed by both initial systems and gave rise to simplicity. 3. The GPS and the WAAS: The GPS, Global Positioning System, consists of a space-based radio navigation satellite and network of ground stations for controlling and monitoring. The space portion consists of at least 24 GPS satellites orbiting the earth twice in a day at a speed of about 7,000miles per hour and about 11,000 miles in altitude from the earths surface.[12] The GPS provides accurate data of current position. Basically, to get current location using the GPS, data is sent from the object e.g. the aircraft and it measures the time taken for the wave to reach the satellite and return and by means of triangulation using at least three satellites, accurate location can be calculated. The GPS though also has some limitations. It cannot be employed for precision landing since it does not give enough vertical accuracy and as known, vertical accuracy ensures safer landing. The GPS precisely provides a vertical accuracy of about 15meters and even the certification for the least, CAT I landing requires a ver tical accuracy of at least 4meters. The inaccuracy is caused by the interaction of the radio signals with large waves in the ionosphere. This interaction slows down the time for the radio signal to be reflected back to its source since even a very small clock error multiplied by the very large speed of light (the speed at which satellite signals propagate) results in a large positional error. These errors aroused the introduction of the WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System). The WAAS basically employs the same space-based satellite and ground based stations as the GPS but its main difference is that it sends out correctional signal to augment errors in the GPS signal. Two master stations located on either coast collects data from the reference station and a GPS correction message. This correction accounts for GPS satellite orbit and clock drift plus signal delays caused by the atmosphere and ionosphere. The corrected differential message is then broadcast through one of two geostatio nary satellites (satellites with a fixed position over the equator). The information is compatible with the basic GPS signal structure, which means any WAAS-enabled GPS receiver can read the signal. For some users, in the U.S for example, they are not able to receive the corrected WAAS signal because of obstructions from trees and mountains. So plainly speaking, the GPS or WAAS is just not accurate enough to replace the ILS and this further encouraged the manufacture of other precision landing systems. [13] 4. JPALS (Joint Precision Approach and Landing System) JPALS or the Joint Precision Approach Landing System is an all weather precision landing system developed and mainly intended for use by the military. The crash of a U.S. military transport in Bosnia in 1996, while flying a non-precision approach in adverse weather highlighted the need for a near-term, rapidly deployable precision approach system. As a result, the Air Mobility Command is pursuing an initiative to field a precision approach system to solve problems like the one encountered in Bosnia. In 1992, the Assistant Secretary of Defense for C3I directed a study to analyze existing emerging PALS technologies. Tasking was passed through the Air Force to the DoD Policy Board on Federal Aviation, which chartered the Precision Landing Study Advisory Group (PLSAG) to produce a JPALS Mission Needs Statement (MNS). The Joint Requirements Oversight Council validated the MNS in August 1995. [14] JPALS was developed by the military for two main reasons: 1. They needed an all weather precision landing system that is highly mobile and open to most if not all military scenarios, such as landing on ships, rough terrains etc. and 2. They needed a rugged system that would work and withstand any weather and environmental conditions. JPALS is similar in concept to the civilian Local Augmentation Area System, LAAS. JPALS augments GPS to provide precision approach and landing information for military aircrafts flying in poor weather or low visibility. A typical JPALS system consists of both ground and airborne component. The ground component transmits correctional messages to augment the GPS signal. It also transmits a set of co-ordinate data defining the final approach path. The airborne receiver on the aircraft determines the position relative to the desired approach path or runway if you like. This information is displayed on the pilots PFD. A single JPALS ground system can support multiple runways in an airport and it can also support different approach path to a single runway. Also, the same JPALS ground system can support approaches to nearby airports within a 10-20miles radius. Furthermore, if a portion of the runway sustains damage, the landing threshold position can be moved further up front the runway. JPALS is divided into two main categories namely the SRGPS and the LDGPS. SRGPS provides highly accurate precision landing for aircrafts aboard ships, S/VTOL, helicopters. LDGPS is further subdivided into three categories. The fixed base used by military for on going operations around the world, the Tactical base designed for short-term critical operations and the Special missions is highly portable and used by Special Forces on special missions. Figure 2 simplifies the subdivisions. Figure 2. JPALS classifications A typical Special Missions JPALS system would be carried in two bag packs and can be set up by two airmen within a few minutes. The prototype system consists of a two GPS receiver enclosure, a laptop and a data link transmitter. In November 2007, this system was set up and tested at the FAAs Williams J. Hughes technical centre in Atlantic City, NJ. This man-packed system was tested using the FAAs covey test aircraft and by a C21 aircraft provided by the airforces Flight Standard Agency. These two aircrafts successfully demonstrated the ability of the man-packed JPALS system to support the CAT1 approach and also further demonstrated its success after the landing threshold position was moved further up the runway in a case of a damaged portion of the runway. [15][16] 5. Conclusion: The ability for aircraft to fly and land under any circumstance is very much important as it ensures safety, integrity to the industry and comfort to passengers. As pilots of the earlier days were almost completely paralysed due to effects from bad weather or worse would crash as it happened to the military transport aircraft in Bosnia urged the need for solutions. The faults in the ILS paved way for the MLS, GPS, JPALS and others. A Transponder Landing System or the TLS would also work where a typical ILS would not provided there is no paralysis in funds. The latest alternative to the ILS is the Localise Performance with Vertical guidance or the LPV which is also based on the same operation as the WAAS and as of Nov. 2008[update], the FAA has published more LPV approaches than Category I ILS procedures. Generally, these precision and landing systems have greatly improved the integrity and safety of the Aviation industry, both military and civilian.

Far East :: essays research papers

A Critique Abstract The Far East, written by Paul H. Clyde and Burton F. Beers is a book containing a collection of facts and is presented in chronological and topical order starting with history in general and this history in particular. The authors begin their book with â€Å"What is history?† The answer is â€Å"In its simplest form, history is the record of things thought, said, and done. Such a definition is a useful starting point but it leaves a host of questions unanswered†. (p.1) It is here that I find myself in complete agreement with the authors not just for this book but history in general as a subject. The authors’ foundation for their book is centered on the subject of history itself. However, it is at this point that I begin to have problems with analysis presented. The authors make the examination, â€Å"For those who are practically inclined, it is a principal means through which man may anticipate the future†. (p.2) I think this statement is more wishful than realistic. The geographic depiction offered in the book gives the reader unfamiliar with this region of the world a 1) starting point on a world map and a 2) sense of not only where but the density covered by the book. With this sense the reader can better understand why there is demographic, cultural, and language differences within and among the many countries as well as the root similarities. The reader finds enhanced discerning to the impact of east meeting west; how from their views the cultural shock was enormous in the past and continues today. The book research is both extensive and systematic, cumulating some 50 odd years. I, as a reader, cannot say the good or bad of this other than to say the focus of the book seems distinctive in content, with the sources listed point to this detail. Book Organization Overall Composition The book includes thirty-six chapters of surprising stories some superb and some grisly of regional history and is arranged in chronological order. Selective chapters are organized with regional chronicles of Old China to New Governments of Asia since 1953. The chapters relate many details and events and processes with noteworthy consequences that have made a foremost impact to the past and present world. It is pragmatically written and contains distortions and omitted parts. It is apparent that it is written from a Western point of view.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrase the following extracts taken from the short stories by Kaki and Dylan Thomas we read last week. 1 )Although he was scarcely yet out of his teens, the Duke of CSCW was already marked out as a personality widely differing from others of his caste and period. Not in externals; therein he conformed correctly to type. His hair was faintly reminiscent of Habitant, and at the other end of him his shoes exhaled the right SOUPÇON of harness-room; his socks compelled one's attention without losing one's respect; and his attitude in repose had just that suggestion of Whistler's other, so becoming in the really young.It was within that the trouble lay, if trouble it could be accounted, which marked him apart from his fellows. The Duke was religious. Not in any of the ordinary senses of the word; he took small heed of High Church or Evangelical standpoints, he stood outside of all the movements and missions and cults and crusades of the day, uncaring and uninterested. Yet in a myst ical- practical way of his own, which had served him unscathed and unshaken through the fickle years of boyhood, he was Intensely and Intensively religious. HIS Emily were naturally, though unobtrusively, distressed about It. L am so afraid It may affect his bridge,† said his mother. ( taken from â€Å"The Ministers of Grace† by Kaki) ? The Duke of CSCW had a marked personality that The verb â€Å"defer† Is Intransitive him from others of his caste and period. He was the right to his type not only for himself but also for the externals. He was so alike of Habitant and his shoes showed a bit of the harness-room; one's attention was wrong verb pattern to his socks without any restriction; and he had such an attitude, as the youth had, like the one in the Whistler's mother.The trouble was himself, and that was the reason why he was apart from his fellows. The Duke was so religious that he paved special attention distortion to the High Church or Evangelical standpoin ts, standing outside of all the movements, missions, cults and crusades with indifference and disinterest. Moreover, he was religious In an intensely and Intensively? No paraphrasing here. Ay of his own. HIS family were very whereabouts It, but In a careful sense, that his mother said: â€Å"I am very anxious because it may affect his relations. )Len the middle of the night I woke from a dream full of whips and lariats as long as serpents, and runaway coaches and mountain passes, and wide, windy gallops over cactus fields, and I heard the old man in the next room crying, â€Å"Gee-up! † and â€Å"Whoa! † and trotting his tongue on the roof of his mouth. It was the first time I had stayed in grandpa's house. The floorboards had squeaked like mice as I climbed into bed, and the mice between the walls had creaked Like wood as though another violators was walking on them.It was a mild summer night, but curtains had flapped and branches eaten against the window. I had pull ed the sheets over my head, and soon was roaring and riding in a book. â€Å"Whoa there, my beauties! † cried grandpa. His voice sounded very young and loud, and his tongue had powerful hooves, and he made his bedroom Into a great meadow. I thought I would see If he was Ill, or had set his bedclothes on fire, for my mother had said that he lit his pipe under the blankets, 1 OFF through the darkness to his bedroom door, brushing against the furniture and upsetting a candlestick with a thump.When I saw there was light in the room I felt righted, and as I opened the door I heard grandpa shout, â€Å"Gee-up! † as loudly as a bull with a megaphone. He was sitting straight up in bed and rocking from side to side as though the bed were on a rough road and the knotted edges of the counterpane were his reins; his invisible horses stood in a shadow beyond the bedside candle. Over a white flannel nightshirt he was wearing a red waistcoat with walnut-sized brass buttons. The overf illed bowl of his pipe smoldered along his whiskers like a little, burning hayrick on a stick.At the sight of me, his hands dropped room the reins and lay blue and quiet, the bed stopped still on a level road, he muffled his tongue into silence, and the horses drew softly up. â€Å"Is there anything the matter, grandpa? † I asked, though the clothes were not on fire. His face in the candlelight looked like a ragged quilt pinned upright on the black air and patched all over with goat-beards. (Taken from â€Å"A Visit to Grandpa ‘s† by Dylan Thomas) Late at night I woke from a strange dream full of strange things related to horses, serpents, coaches and mountains, and then listened to the old man shouting, â€Å"Go faster! And â€Å"Stop! † and making a kind of a sound with his tongue. As it was the first time I had stayed in grandpa's house, I noticed every single sound like the squeak of the floorboards when I climbed into bed or the mice inside the walls , they creaked as if there was somebody else there. Although the summer night was mild, the curtains had flapped and the windows were beaten by the branches. I covered my head with the sheets and shortly I was roaring and riding in a book. Poor paraphrasing â€Å"Stop, my beauties! â€Å", shouted grandpa.His voice was like a young man's voice while his ensue made the sound of the hooves, and his bedroom was like a great meadow. I thought I would see if he was k as my mother told me he had the habit to smoke his pipe under the blankets and may be bedclothes set on fire, so I should run to his help if I smelt smoke in the night. I walked silently towards his bedroom, touching the furniture and threw a candlestick with a bump. There was light in his bedroom and I fleet frightened but when I opened the door I could hear grandpa shouting, â€Å"Go faster! † in such a loud voice as he could.He was sitting in bed rocking from side to did as the bed were a road full of wells and h e was holding the imaginary reins while his invisible horses rose behind the bedside candle. Besides his pajamas, he was wearing a red waistcoat with brass buttons. His overfilled pipe was burning along his beard. When he saw me, his hands laid blue and quiet, dropping the reins, the bed stopped its movement, he stopped the noise with his tongue and the horses arrived softly. â€Å"Is everything k, grandpa? â€Å", I asked, despite there was no fire on the bedroom. Under the candlelight, his face looked like an old cover all patched with goat beards.

Atoms, Molecules, & Elements

Atoms are the smallest entities which resemble the properties of an element and cannot be broken down into smaller parts. Molecules are formed when two or more atoms are combined. This formation can happen in a variety of ways. When two oxygen atoms join O2 is formed, and when three oxygen atoms join O3 or ozone is formed. Both of these have different properties. Different atoms can also combine to form molecules. Hydrogen combines with sulfur to form H2S and hydrogen and oxygen also combine to form H2O.Dmitri Mendeleev’s Periodic table is based on atomic weight, whereas, the modern periodic table keeps the atomic number as the base. An atomic table arranges elements from left to right in a row with the atomic number and properties gradually changing. The elements on the next row will actually exhibit similar properties as the ones above or below it. This provides an example of the periodicity nature of the elements. The columns of different elements in a period have the same or very similar properties. The properties of the elements change gradually as the columns move down through the periodic table.Atoms in similar families, such as H2S and H2O, exhibit both similar properties and molecular structure. This shows periodicity in both the molecules and the individual atoms. Alkali metals contain a single electron in their outer shell rendering them highly reactive. This allows them to be ready to donate this single electron to form molecules with substances like water. Halogens are also extremely reactive containing seven electrons in their outer shell. Similar to alkali metals, halogens need only one electron in their outer shell to become stable.The reactivity of an element increases the when the number of outer shell electrons is closer to one or seven. Elements that contain eight electrons in their outer shell exhibit little or no reactivity. Alkali metals are the elements found in group one of the periodic table. Mixing these metals with water creat es a strong base used to neutralize acids. An example of an alkali metal is sodium (Na). Sodium contains one free electron to donate to form instant bonds like NaCl. Chlorine (Cl) is an example of a halogen. Chlorine requires one single electron to make eight electrons in its’ outer shell.Ultimately the high reactivity of alkali metals and halogens are a result of their unstable electronic configuration in the outer shell. In contrast, noble gases tend to be non-reactive because these elements have stable electronic configurations in their outer shell. Helium, for example, has two electrons and neon has eight electrons in the outer shell. These elements do not normally react with other elements. Molecules from atoms in similar families, such as H2S and H2O, have the same type of molecular shape and structure.Sulfur is less electronegative than oxygen making the hydrogen-sulfur bond less polar than the hydrogen-oxygen bond. Due to this difference in polarity, the molecules of H2S tend to remain in a gaseous state. In contrast, the polarity between hydrogen and oxygen keeps the molecules of H2O together in a liquid state. This phenomenon is known as electrostatic attraction which is stronger in H2O molecules and weaker in H2S molecules. The electronic structure of atoms refers to the way electrons are arranged around the nucleus.Four quantum numbers describe this structure and define the position of an electron in the electronic structure of the atom. These numbers illustrate the structure and arrangement of electrons. This can also be defined as a wave function showing the probability of finding an electron in a point in space. Electronic configuration is important for chemists in understanding how and why certain elements react with other elements. This method is much simpler than the quantum model and allows chemists to predict how certain elements will react sometimes before the chemical reaction has taken place.Chemists can then theorize a reaction b ased on this electronic structure. Chemists can also use knowledge of the electronic structure of atoms to predict how elements will bond. They can determine whether the bond will be an electrochemical bond, a covalent bond, or a coordinate bond, etc. This also helps in explaining how certain elements will behave. Diagrams illustrating the energy level of elements also aid chemists but electronic configuration is a more preferred and simpler method for chemists to use.

Gay and Lesbian essays

Gay and Lesbian essays Adoption has long been a way for a loving family who cannot have children on their own, or a family with some extra love to give to have children. Today, adoption has taken a turn for the worse, Gay and Lesbian couples who of course cannot children are adopting kids. I see this as one of our nations number one problems. What kind of message are these kids getting? That homosexuality is all right. If this continues America will have a group of children running around with deviant behavior hardwired into their mind. Gay and Lesbian adoption must end for the sake of the children, for the sake of moral decency, and for the sake of the United States of America. Children in foster homes and orphanages have enough problems without have to deal with having homosexual parents. Other children and adult for something that they cannot control will persecute them, but their parents can. Even if they attend church they will not get the main Christian value of family. The biggest problem of all is that they might end up thinking that homosexuality is OK or even good, and that is just terrible. All children need the influence of a mother and father (Gay Parent online Magazine). Unfortunately, some children are not able to receive this because of death, divorce, or abandonment, but some just miss out on this because of two greedy homosexuals who what to have their cake and eat it two. The safety of the children is also in question when kids are placed with homosexuals. Forty percent of child molesters are homosexual, and they only represent ten percent of the population (Statistics website). This fact alone should make anyone want to outlaw homosexual adoptions. Also one of the nations foremost psychologist's Dr. Laura Schlessinger says that same sex parenting in "despicable" and "a huge portion of the male homosexual populace is predatory on young boys"(Newsweek 52). The most obvious reason homosexuals ...

Speech Acts in Linguistics

Speech Acts in Linguistics In linguistics, a speech act is an utterance defined in terms of a speakers intention and the effect it has on a listener. Essentially, it is the action that the speaker hopes to provoke in his or her audience. Speech acts might be requests, warnings, promises, apologies, greetings, or any number of declarations. As you might imagine, speech acts are an important part of communication. Speech-Act Theory Speech-act theory is a subfield of pragmatics. This area of study is concerned with the ways in which words  can be used not only to present information but also to carry out actions. It is used in linguistics, philosophy, psychology, legal and literary theories, and even the development of artificial intelligence. Speech-act theory was introduced in 1975 by Oxford philosopher J.L. Austin in How to Do Things With Words  and further developed by American philosopher J.R. Searle. It considers three levels or components of utterances: locutionary acts (the making of a meaningful statement, saying something that a hearer understands), illocutionary acts (saying something with a purpose, such as to inform), and perlocutionary acts (saying something that causes someone to act). Illocutionary speech acts can also be broken down into different families, grouped together by their intent of usage. Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Acts To determine which way a speech act is to be interpreted, one must first determine the type of act being performed.  Locutionary acts  are, according to Susana Nuccetelli and Gary Seays Philosophy of Language: The Central Topics, the mere act of producing some linguistic sounds or marks with a certain meaning and reference. So this is merely an umbrella term, as illocutionary and perlocutionary acts can occur simultaneously when locution of a statement happens. Illocutionary acts, then, carry a directive for the audience. It might be a promise, an order, an apology, or an expression of thanks- or merely an answer to a question, to inform the other person in the conversation. These express a certain attitude and carry with their statements a certain illocutionary force, which can be broken into families.   Perlocutionary acts, on the other hand, bring about a consequence to the audience. They have an effect on the hearer, in feelings, thoughts, or actions, for example, changing someones mind. Unlike illocutionary acts, perlocutionary acts can project a sense of fear into the audience. Take for instance the perlocutionary act of saying, I will not be your friend. Here, the impending loss of friendship is an illocutionary act, while the effect of frightening the friend into compliance is a perlocutionary act. Families of Speech Acts As mentioned, illocutionary acts can be categorized into common families of speech acts. These define the supposed intent of the speaker. Austin again uses How to Do Things With Words to argue his case for the five most common classes:   Verdictives, which present a findingExercitives, which exemplify power or influenceCommissives, which consist of promising or committing to doing somethingBehabitives, which have to do with social behaviors and attitudes like apologizing and congratulatingExpositives, which explain how our language interacts with itself David Crystal, too, argues for these categories in Dictionary of Linguistics. He lists several proposed  categories, including directives (speakers try to get their listeners to do something, e.g. begging, commanding, requesting), commissives (speakers commit themselves to a future course of action, e.g. promising, guaranteeing), expressives (speakers express their feelings, e.g. apologizing, welcoming, sympathizing), declarations (the speakers utterance brings about a new external situation, e.g. christening, marrying, resigning). It is important to note that these are not the only categories of speech acts, and they are not perfect nor exclusive. Kirsten Malmkjaer points out in Speech-Act Theory, There are many marginal cases, and many instances of overlap, and a very large body of research exists as a result of peoples efforts to arrive at more precise classifications. Still, these five commonly accepted categories do a good job of describing the breadth of human expression, at least when it comes to illocutionary acts in speech theory. Sources Austin, J.L. How to Do Things With Words. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975. Crystal, D. Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2008. Malmkjaer, K. Speech -Act Theory. In The Linguistics Encyclopedia, 3rd ed. New York, NY: Routledge, 2010. Nuccetelli, Susana (Editor). Philosophy of Language: The Central Topics. Gary Seay (Series Editor), Rowman Littlefield Publishers, December 24, 2007.

Beneficios para cubanos por pies secos, pies mojados

Beneficios para cubanos por pies secos, pies mojados Por decisià ³n del gobierno de los Estados Unidos, la polà ­tica de pies secos pies mojados ha dejado de tener validez. Por lo tanto, los beneficios que aquà ­ se enumeran sà ³lo aplican a los que se beneficiaron de esa polà ­tica antes de que el presidente Obama le pusiera fin. En otras palabras, a los que ya ingresaron a Estados Unidos bajo esa polà ­tica. Cà ³mo est ahora pies secos pies mojados Pies secos pies mojados ha dejado de aplicarse. Sin embargo, los cubanos que ingresaron a Estados Unidos en aplicacià ³n de esta polà ­tica y que todavà ­a no han adquirido la tarjeta de residencia mediante un ajuste de estatus en aplicacià ³n de la Ley de Ajuste Cubano podrn seguir los trmites y tener beneficios que se aplicaban mientras pies secos pies mojados estaba en activo. Los  beneficios son monetarios, sociales y mà ©dicos si cumplen los mismos requisitos que se les piden a los ciudadanos estadounidenses. Los cubanos eran el à ºnico grupo de migrantes que cuentan con un conjunto de beneficios que sà ³lo aplican a ellos. Esto es asà ­ por la Ley de Ajuste Cubano, aprobada en la dà ©cada de los 60, y sus posteriores modificaciones, en particular la conocida como pies secos, pies mojados, que fue aprobada el 19 de agosto de 1994 y que ha dejado de aplicarse el 12 de enero de 2017. Segà ºn pies secos, pies mojados, se podà ­an  quedar en Estados Unidos los cubanos que logren pisar tierra estadounidense y eran regresados a Cuba o enviados a un tercer paà ­s los que son interceptados en el mar. En los à ºltimos aà ±os esa polà ­tica ha derivado en que la mayorà ­a de las entradas a EEUU se realizaban  a travà ©s de la frontera con Mà ©xico, es lo que se conoce como pies con polvo, en referencia al desierto. En general, cuando un cubano llegaba a tierra o se presentaba en la frontera estadounidense sin la documentacià ³n migratoria necesaria no era devuelto por donde ha venido, como le ocurre al resto de los extranjeros, excepto los que piden con fundamento que se les conceda asilo. Los cubanos eran  entrevistados, se comprobaba la autenticidad de sus documentos, se analizaba su acento y se verificaba si han cometido algà ºn delito. Si acreditaban a satisfaccià ³n del oficial de Inmigracià ³n que eran cubanos con un pasado no criminal se le concedà ­a prcticamente siempre el derecho a entrar en EEUU en lo que se conoce como parole. Un aà ±o y un dà ­a ms tarde podrn solicitar la green card, es decir, la tarjeta de residente permanente en aplicacià ³n de la Ley de Ajuste Cubano. Casos de doble nacionalidad y consecuencias para peticià ³n de beneficios Los cubanos que tenà ­an  doble nacionalidad Cuba/otro paà ­s tenà ­an que prestar atencià ³n a quà © nacionalidad se consignaba en los papeles ya que si es la no cubana podà ­an surgir problemas a la hora de solicitar beneficios mà ©dicos y sociales a los que sà ³lo tenà ­an derecho los migrantes cubanos. Beneficios por pies secos pies mojados En general las leyes migratorias de los Estados Unidos ponen importantes restricciones a los nuevos migrantes para acceder a beneficios sociales y mà ©dicos, llegando a prohibir recibir ayudas por un determinado nà ºmero de aà ±os. Esto aplica para los beneficios federales y tambià ©n estatales, aunque en este à ºltimo caso hay diferencias entre los estados. Esas limitaciones no aplicaban  a los cubanos recià ©n llegados, quienes podrn gozar de los siguientes beneficios siempre y cuando cumplan una serie de requisitos, que son los mismos que se le piden a los ciudadanos estadounidenses.   Ingresos de seguridad complementaria (SSI, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) Este es un programa del gobierno federal para dotar con dinero a personas necesitadas para que puedan hacer frente a pagos para necesidades bsicas, como comida, vivienda, o ropa. Para poder colectar el SSI (informacià ³n en inglà ©s) es preciso cumplir con ciertos requisitos de edad, incapacidad que son fijados por la ley y, al mismo tiempo, tener ingresos o recursos inferiores a una cantidad tambià ©n fijada legalmente. Por ejemplo, pueden ser beneficiarios las personas de 65 aà ±os o mayores, los ciegos, las personas mayores de 18 que tienen una minusvalà ­a o enfermedad fà ­sica o mental que les impida ganarse la vida o que haya durado o pueda durar ms de 12 meses. Tambià ©n se puede solicitar el SSI para los menores de 18 aà ±os con una minusvalà ­a fà ­sica o mental que limite severamente su funcionalidad. Se aplica por este beneficio a la Administracià ³n de la Seguridad Social. La cantidad mxima que se puede cobrar mensualmente la fija cada aà ±o el Congreso, para el aà ±o fiscal 2012 est establecida en $698 para una persona o $1,048 para el caso de parejas. La cantidad puede ser menor, dependiendo de las circunstancias personales de cada uno, como puede ser tener ingresos adicionales, tener donde vivir, etc. Este beneficio puede recibirse por siete aà ±os, a contar desde el momento de entrada. Aunque en los aà ±os fiscales 2009-2010-2011 estuvo aplicado a nueve aà ±os. Una vez transcurrido ese periodo de tiempo, no se podr colectar ms el SSI, excepto si el beneficiario se ha convertido en ciudadano o si ya se cobraba con anterioridad al 22 de agosto de 1996. En la mayorà ­a de los estados, calificar para recibir pagos en concepto de SSI da derecho automticamente a beneficiarse de Medicaid. Asistencia Temporal para Familias Necesitadas (TANF, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) Las familias con hijos menores de 18 aà ±os con escasos recursos pueden recibir ayuda econà ³mica mediante este programa por un plazo mximo de 60 meses. Los pagos pueden ser continuos o discontinuos, segà ºn vayan cambiando las circunstancias econà ³micas de cada familia. Este es un programa que administran cada uno de los estados. Como consecuencia la cantidad a recibir en cada uno puede variar grandemente. Pero en ningà ºn caso es una cantidad alta. Asimismo, dependiendo del estado, las personas que reciben dinero por TANF (informacià ³n en inglà ©s), pueden beneficiarse de Medicaid. Lo que no es posible es que una misma persona colecte al mismo tiempo pagos por TANF y por SSI. Asistencia para refugiados Los cubanos que entran en Estados Unidos en aplicacià ³n de la polà ­tica de pies secos, pies mojados y que carezcan de ingresos o recursos pero no pueden solicitar ayuda de TANF o SSI porque no cumplen alguno de los requisitos pueden beneficiarse de los programas de Asistencia en dinero en efectivo para refugiados (RCA, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) o el de Asistencia mà ©dica para refugiados (RMA, por sus siglas en inglà ©s). Por ejemplo, este programa aplica a los adultos solteros o a las parejas sin hijos y menores de 65 aà ±os que no sufren de ninguna minusvalà ­a pero carecen de medios para pagar por sus necesidades bsicas. El programa RCA es administrado por los estados por lo que la cantidad a recibir mensualmente por los beneficiados puede variar mucho. El importe que se entrega puede ser en dinero o en la forma de pago de facturas de electricidad, renta de la vivienda o calefaccià ³n o similares. En cuanto al RMA, es tambià ©n un programa gestionado a nivel estatal. Como regla general los beneficios son similares a los de Medicaid en ese mismo estado. Tanto el RCA como el RMA se pueden colectar, si se califica para ser beneficiario, por un mximo de ocho meses. Cuotas migratorias Despuà ©s de un aà ±o y un dà ­a de presencia en Estados Unidos se aplica para la tarjeta de residencia. Si en ese momento se est pasando por una situacià ³n de necesidad econà ³mica podrà ­a ser posible calificar para no pagar por ese trmite migratorio A tener en cuenta Estos beneficios no aplican a todos los cubanos que entran a EEUU. Por ejemplo, no califican los que vienen con el patrocinio de un familiar ciudadano. Tampoco a los cubanos que llegan a Estados Unidos con otro pasaporte, como por ejemplo el espaà ±ol o el italiano, a menos que consigan un cambio de calificacià ³n en sus papeles. Seguirn aplicando a los cubanos que ingresaron por pies secos pies mojados en los à ºltimos tiempos y todavà ­a no han cumplido el aà ±o y un dà ­a para ajustar su estatus. A tener en cuenta Cuando hay cambios migratorios, como en en este caso en que se puso fin a pies secos pies mojados, es imperativo desconfiar de aquellas personas que prometen arreglar papeles, que aseguran conocer a alguien en el sistema, etc. Ms que nunca hay que asesorarse con una organizacià ³n de asistencia a migrantes o con abogados migratorios reputados. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal para ningà ºn caso concreto.